Richard Hooker and the Puritans

Introduction to Anglican Theology

Richard Hooker and the Puritans
(Lesson Eight)
In this lesson we will learn something of the theology of Richard Hooker (1554-1600) as found in his famous Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity.(1) As mentioned in the previous lesson, Hooker defended the Anglican Church from the attacks of the Puritans who believed that the Anglican Reformation did not go far enough in the direction of pure biblical faith. At the same time, however, Hooker also affirmed the Anglican position against the Church of Rome as articulated by Cranmer, Jewel, and others. In fact, Hooker was John Jewel’s protégé. It was Jewel, in his capacity as bishop of Salisbury, who saw to it that Hooker was accepted into Oxford where he studied the great classics of the Christian faith – the Scriptures, church history, and the great theologians through the centuries. His profound knowledge of Scripture and the great tradition is evident throughout his writings.

Hooker was ordained a priest in1579, and not long afterward, in 1585, he became rector of the Temple Church in London. While there he became embroiled in the controversy between those who accepted the Elizabethan Settlement and those of a more Puritan persuasion. Hooker preached and defended the Settlement, while his opponents preached the Puritan doctrine. In 1591 he left his position at the Temple Church and took a smaller parish where he began his great work, The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity. He worked on it until his death in 1600.

In order to understand Hooker’s defense of Anglicanism, we will need to understand something of the structure of his theological perspective, and within that context, see how he addresses some of the issues raised by the Puritans. Rather than simply addressing Puritan concerns one by one, he first developed a comprehensive theological system that encompassed all aspects of life. Then, in that context, he addressed specific issues. It is that theological structure and its relevance to practical matters that make Hooker a great theologian. Our next step is to briefly investigate the architecture of his theological system, but first a note on notation.

Hooker’s Laws is comprised of a Preface followed by eight books, each divided into numbered chapters and further subdivided into numbered sub-sections. I will reference my quotations from Hooker using these numbers. For example, the notation (5.42.12) means Book Five, chapter 42, section 12 of Hooker’s Laws.

Aspects of Richard Hooker’s Theology

In order to grasp Hooker’s thought we will consider the following topics: 1. God and the Divine Law 2. Creation 3. Adam, the Moral, Positive, and Supernatural Law 4. Jesus Christ, the Supernatural Law, and the Church 5. The Holy Spirit 6. Hooker’s Theological Norms.

God and the Divine Law

The central concept in Hooker's Laws is his understanding of law. Hooker defines law as follows, “That which doth assign unto each thing the kind, that which doth moderate the force and power, that which doth appoint the form and measure, of working, the same we term a Law” (1.2.1). “A law therefore generally taken, is a directive rule unto goodness of operation” (1.8.4) The two key words here are "working" and "operation." For Hooker, God works and operates, and among these operations is the creation of human beings who also operate. The form of these "operations" is law, so that law is what guides, directs, and reflects divine and human activities.

The source of all law is God himself, and God works according to his own law. It is his law that "giveth life unto all the rest, which are commendable, just, and good; namely the law whereby the Eternal himself doth work" (1.1.3). By claiming that God himself works according to law, Hooker separates himself from those who claim that will, not mind, is primary in God. "They err therefore who think that of the will of God to do this or that there is no reason besides his will" (1.2.5). Hooker believes that God wills, but his reason guides his will, and he does nothing without rational foresight. Since God is reasonable, God's revelation is reasonable and can, at least in part, be known by the mind. Therefore, Hooker reasons, and he urges his opponents to reason about matters divine. The law of God's inner workings Hooker calls the "first law eternal" (1.3.1). God's inner workings are reflected in his workings outside himself, and Hooker calls these external workings the "second law eternal” (1.3.1). The second law eternal reflects the first and guides all God's external actions. Since the second law eternal reflects the first, and since the first is reasonable, it follows that God's ordering of all things is also reasonable, and therefore, Hooker uses his mind to understand the things of God and all of life.

Creation

For Hooker, reality is a dynamic, hierarchically arranged, and interactive organism whose final goal is God (1.5.2). At the bottom of the hierarchy are natural agents (our physical objects), followed by vegetative life, animal life, humans, political and ecclesiastical life, angels, and then God. (1.6.2) Apart from God, all these dynamically go from potential into act (Aristotle, Aquinas), from initial states to final states. As this happens they work according to the laws of their created natures. These laws have their source in God, and are created according to the second law eternal. The laws that govern the workings of all things have a goal and that goal is God. God is the ultimate Good. As a result, all things move together toward God in an organic and cooperative fashion. For example, inanimate dirt is required for plant growth, vegetative life required for bread and wine, all three are required for physical life, both bread, wine, and physical life are required for mental and spiritual life, and all required for life with God. "These things are linked and as it were chained one to another; we labour to eat, and we eat to live, and we live to do good, and the good which we do is as seed sown with reference to a future harvest” (1.11.1). Further, God directs, moves, draws, and cooperates with each realm of existence according to its nature. Inanimate objects simply obey God according to the physical laws of nature. They obey God unknowingly (1.4.1). Human beings are more complex and God’s interactions with them are more complex. By creation, human beings possess a triple perfection -- sensual, intellectual, and spiritual. God creates these capacities, and it is an axiom of nature that true created desires should be fulfilled (1.11.4). Possessing a spiritual nature, human beings, when assisted by grace, are drawn to God as their final end and goal. This is the vision of God, a perception of God's final and complete truth, goodness, and love.

Complete union with him must be according unto every power and faculty of our minds apt to receive so glorious an object. Capable we are of God both by understanding and will: by understanding, as He is that sovereign Truth which comprehendeth the rich treasures of all wisdom; by will, as He is that sea of Goodness whereof whoso tasteth shall thirst no more. As the will doth now work upon that object by desire, which is as it were a motion towards the end as yet unobtained; so likewise upon the same hereafter received it shall work also by love (1.11.3).

At this point we have God, his operations given by his internal and external laws, and his creation understood organically, governed by law and directed toward God as the final goal. This goal was frustrated by sin, beginning with the sin of Adam.

Adam, the Moral, Positive, and Supernatural Law

When God created Adam, he acted in accord with his own goodness and created Adam in his own image. Since God acted according to his inner law of reason, Adam also acted by his reason, by deliberate moral actions directed by his understanding.

As Adam’s reason and understanding directed his will, he discerned the law of his workings. This law fell into two basic categories, moral law and positive law. The moral or natural law is known by reason and has its source in the mind of God. Reflecting the divine image, human beings see, reflect, and grasp the world by reason and know its laws. The moral or natural law discerned by reason is universal. For example, reason should be able to see that God is the Creator, that he created human beings, that all persons have parents, that work creates valuable products for the sake of the worker, and therefore, reason should say that God as Creator should be worshipped, that killing of those created by God is wrong, that parents should be honored, and that one should not steal the property of others. These moral or natural laws, known by reason, are universal. They are always binding on all persons everywhere. "Laws natural do always bind; laws positive not so, but only after they have been expressly and wittingly imposed” (1.15.1). Or again, Hooker will say, “In laws, that which is natural bindeth universally, that which is positive not so” (1.10.7).

Positive law is law that isn’t natural law. Not being discerned by reason from nature, it is imposed by authorities, either by human beings or by God. Among the positive laws, are the supernatural laws revealed by God. The first supernatural law was God’s command to Adam that he not eat of the tree of good and evil. The revelation of the salvation found in Christ is also a supernatural law. Reason alone cannot tell us that a man named Jesus is the savior of the world. God has revealed that to us. Adam knew this supernatural command not to eat of the tree because God told him this law, and he also knew the moral law discerned by his uncorrupted reason. Had he done the good, he would have obeyed both laws, that of reason and the prohibition to eat of the tree. Had Adam obeyed, his righteousness would have been rewarded by God and God would have blessed him with eternal happiness.

Adam, however, rebelled against God’s commands and was punished by death. His relationship with God was broken and his nature was corrupted, including his ability to discern the good by reason. What happened in Adam affects all of us for we are all children of Adam. Adam is in us as the root is in the tree (5.56.6). As a result, all persons are subject to corruption and death.

In reflecting on law, the laws of reason and the supernatural law given by God, it is important to keep in mind that these laws are not alien to human nature. They express our “workings,” the deep structure of our beings. Lost in sin and corruption, they may appear as something we might not wish to do, but for Hooker, they lead to God and final happiness.
After the sin of Adam and Eve and their expulsion from the garden, the stream of biblical history continues with the law and the prophets. Hooker understands the law and the prophets as the beginning of God’s redemptive revelation and as preparatory to the supernatural revelation in Christ. He relates the law and the prophets to Christ according to the ancient tradition of the church. Here are his words:

The cause of their reading first the Old Testament, then the New, and always somewhat out of both, is most likely to have been that which Justin Martyr and St. Augustin observe in comparing the two Testaments. “The Apostles,” saith the one, “have taught us as themselves did learn, first the precepts of the Law, and then the gospels. For what else is the Law but the Gospel foreshewed? What other the Gospel, than the Law fulfilled?” In like sort the other, “What the Old Testament hath, the very same the New containeth; but that which lieth there as under a shadow is here brought forth into the open sun. Things there prefigured are here performed.” Again, “In the Old Testament there is a close comprehension of the New, in the New an open discovery of the Old” (5.20.6).

Jesus Christ, the Supernatural Law, and the Church

Taking account of Adam’s sin, God provided a supernatural way for the salvation of humanity, the Lord Jesus Christ. By creation, eternal glory would had been given to Adam had he been righteous, that is, had he kept the laws of God. Christ, however, was righteous, keeping the laws of God and leading a sinless life. Therefore, he was given eternal life. His righteousness was given to humanity, and when received in faith, grants eternal life to those who believe. Hooker was a child of the Reformation, a strong believer in the Reformation doctrine of justification by grace through faith. “It is therefore true, that our Lord Jesus Christ by one most precious and propitiatory sacrifice, which was his body, a gift of infinite worth, offered for the sins of the whole world, hath thereby once reconciled us to God, purchased his general free pardon, and turned away divine indignation from mankind” (6.5.3). This salvation, given by Christ and received in faith, restores the human nature that was lost to sin. In Hooker’s thought, grace restores nature, and when restored, all the capacities of human life are renewed.

Among other things, by creation, all human beings are social, bound to each other by the ties of natural life. This natural inclination toward social life requires an order, the laws of social life. “Two foundations there are which bear up public societies; the one, a natural inclination, whereby all men desire sociable life and fellowship; the other, an order expressly or secretly agreed upon touching the manner of their union in living together” (1.10.1). This natural social order, in the process of being redeemed by grace, gives rise to two societies, that of the nation or commonwealth, and that of the church.
All persons are members of civil societies by birth, and then by faith, those that are born again belong to Christ and the society that he formed. The church is defined by supernatural law; her ways of living and working are given in the gospel of Jesus Christ. For Hooker, there is no salvation unless a person is in the church and in fellowship with its members. “Our being in Christ by eternal foreknowledge saveth us not without our actual and real adoption into the fellowship of his saints in this present world” (5.56.7).

Since grace restores nature, the redeemed person in Christ Jesus is able to know the good as did Adam before he sinned. This means that human beings, when incorporated into Christ, can know the good defined by the moral law, the supernatural laws of God, and legitimate human authorities. Furthermore, since the original desire of Adam and all people was and is to know God, this desire, along with all other true desires -- sensual, intellectual, and spiritual -- are satisfied in Christ, beginning in this life and completed in the life to come. Above all, the desire for God is granted its intended object, resulting in the faith, hope, and love that characterize the glorious knowledge of the living God. What humanity hoped for by creation and lost by sin, is granted in redemption. This is important and requires worship, prayer, and reflection to grasp it.

Concerning faith, the principle object whereof is that eternal Verity which hath discovered the hidden wisdom in Christ; concerning Hope, the highest object whereof is that everlasting Goodness which in Christ doth quicken the dead; concerning Charity, the final object whereof is that incomprehensible Beauty which shineth in the countenance of Christ the Son of the Living God: concerning these virtues, the first of which beginning here with a weak apprehension of things not seen, endeth with the intuitive vision of God in the world to come; the second beginning here with a trembling expectation of things far removed and as yet but only heard of, endeth with real and actual fruition of that which no tongue can express; the third beginning here with a weak inclination of heart toward him unto whom we are not able to approach, endeth with endless union, the mystery whereof is higher than the reach of the thoughts of men; concerning that Faith, Hope, and Charity, without which there can be no salvation, was there ever any mention made saving only in that law which God himself from heaven revealed? Is there not in the world a syllable muttered with certain truth concerning any of these three, more than hath been supernaturally received from the mouth of the eternal God? (1.11.6)

According to this extended quotation, faith, hope, and love begin now, but they are completed in the “life of the world to come,” to quote the Nicene Creed. In other words, for Hooker, the realities of the Christian faith are dimly seen in this life, and this is a foretaste of the great joys that will occur in the age to come when union with God will be complete. Even in this life, however, there is the beginning of union with God, given by participation in Christ, that is, by hearing his words from Scripture and receiving his sacraments. It can rightly be said that Hooker was polemical, fighting against the errors of the Puritans and of Rome as well, but in the end, his real aim was God.

The Holy Spirit

Our treatment of the Holy Spirit will be brief. The most important work of the Spirit is to set forth what the “Son doth hear of the Father” (1.2.2) which is given in the apostolic witness to Christ as known in Scripture. In other words, the Spirit enables the believer to understand the biblical revelation and thereby come to the knowledge of Christ, and through him, to know the living God. How then, does Hooker understand Scripture?

Hooker’s Theological Norms

For Hooker, Scripture is the words and Word of God. It is the oracles of God, literally (1.14.1, 3.8.13). Here Hooker is being faithful to the biblical text which proclaims that God literally speaks. Since Scripture is the oracles of God, understanding Scripture must begin with the literal sense.

I hold it for a most infallible rule in expositions of sacred Scripture, that where a literal construction will stand, the farthest from the letter is commonly the worst. There is nothing more dangerous that this licentious and deluding art, which changeth the meaning of words, as alchymy doth or would do the substance of metals, making of any thing what it listeth, and bringeth in the end all truth to nothing (5.59.2).

The literal sense, however, is not always easily understood. Hard study is required, and it is best done in the company of the learned of present and past generations. Only by painful labor can the excesses of arbitrary exegesis be avoided. Over and over again, Hooker brings to bear the best traditions of reason in his interpretation of Scripture -- the exegetical tradition of the church, the classical heritage, and the hermeneutical tools of Renaissance learning.

Further, Hooker also recognizes that the Spirit must work if Scripture is to be properly understood. In speaking of the Spirit, however, he betrays a certain reserve. He mistrusted the enthusiastic, "spiritual," and at times arbitrary biblical exegesis of his Puritan opponents. Hooker's objection to the Puritans was not that they relied on the Spirit to interpret Scripture. He relied on the Spirit as well. Rather, it was their failure to see that the Spirit redeems the mind, and since God is reasonable, the Spirit's work is made evident through rational analysis. Hooker could scarcely endure the Puritan willingness to deprecate reason and exalt irrationality. "By these and the like disputes an opinion hath spread itself very far in the world, as if the way to be ripe in faith were to be raw in wit and judgment; as if Reason were an enemy unto Religion, childish Simplicity the mother of ghostly and divine Wisdom" (3.8.4). Further, as Hooker uses redeemed reason to interpret Scripture, he makes a number of distinctions. He begins with the premise that everything works toward an end, and the goal of Scripture is the revelation of those supernatural truths that work salvation. The gospel of salvation is an eternal truth, but not all supernatural truth in Scripture is eternal. For example, God supernaturally gave Israel instructions on how to build the tabernacle. These instructions, however, were no longer necessary when the temple was built in Jerusalem, nor was the temple necessary when the Incarnation became the temple of God on earth. If the purpose and the circumstances to which a law applies do not change, the law cannot be changed. If the circumstances or situation the law addresses no longer exist, or if aspects of its application have changed, then the law can be abolished or changed according to circumstances. Certain realities such as the gospel and the moral law never change. Since Scripture's purpose is supernatural, saving truth, Scripture does not give full knowledge in many areas of life. It does not, for example, give detailed knowledge for many daily decisions, the "taking up of a rush or straw” (2.1.2). Nor does it give a specific form of church government, nor exactly how a nation should be governed, nor all the laws needed to govern the commerce of nations. Many of these matters require law, and this law is positive law imposed by legitimate authority. Hooker will argue that kings and bishops, for example, are legitimate authorities, although in the case of kings, their authority ultimately rests on the consent of the governed (8.6.11). These authorities are free to develop and impose positive law provided that it contradicts neither Scripture nor the moral law. Reason and revelation both assist in the formation of this positive law. Both provide general principles, and reason or common sense discerns how laws in particular circumstances may best serve final ends. In terms of authority, Hooker allows only reason and Scripture as primary norms. Since reason has fallen, he puts Scripture before reason, not only with respect to supernatural revelation, but also with regard to the moral law found in Scripture. This is because human reason has been corrupted, and therefore God placed major portions of the natural law in Scripture.

What the Church of God standeth bound to know or do, the same in part nature teacheth. And because nature can teach them but only in part, neither so fully as is requisite for man's salvation, nor so easily as to make the way plain and expedite enough that many may come to the knowledge of it, and so be saved; therefore in Scripture hath God both collected the most necessary things that the school of nature teacheth unto that end, and revealeth also whatsoever we neither could with safety be ignorant of, nor at all be instructed in but by supernatural revelation from him (3.3.3).

After Scripture as the decisive authority and reason as a second authority subject to Scripture, Hooker will affirm tradition. Hooker will rely on tradition since his thought is social and historical. He belongs to a great historical society, the church, and will therefore listen to its witness as it interprets Scripture and reflects upon the moral law of reason. He does not, and he is emphatic about this, place the voice of the church (tradition) alongside Scripture, but under it. In areas of life where both reason and revelation are silent, tradition is of value since things long tested have proved their worth.

Be it matter of the one kind or of the other, what Scripture doth plainly deliver, to that the first place both of credit and obedience is due; the next whereunto is whatsoever any man can conclude by force of reason; after these the voice of the Church succeedeth. That which the Church by her ecclesiastical authority shall probably think and define to be true or good, must in congruity of reason overrule all other inferior judgments whatsoever (5.8.2).

From the foregoing it follows that, for Hooker, Scripture is the highest authority. He does not believe in a continuing divine revelation equal to Scripture, thereby rejecting the Roman view that there were unwritten truths given by tradition. In his words:

Now forasmuch as there hath been reason alleged sufficient to conclude, that all things necessary unto salvation must be made known, and that God himself hath therefore revealed his will, because otherwise men could not have known so much as it necessary; his surceasing to speak to the world, since the publishing of the Gospel of Jesus Christ and the delivery of the same in writing, is unto us a manifest token that the way of salvation is now sufficiently opened, and that we need no other means for our full instruction than God hath already furnished us withal (1.14.3).

Let us summarize these basic elements of Hooker’s theological system: 1. God is the creator, the highest good. 2. He works by his reason and understanding which guides all his actions. 3. He created all human beings in his image, enabling them to act by their understanding. 4. He gives two kinds of laws, those human beings can discern by their understanding and those which cannot be discerned by their understanding. The former laws are called the moral or natural law, the latter laws are called positive law. 5. Positive laws are given by legitimate authority. 6. Human beings do not keep the laws of reason or the positive commands of God. As a consequence human beings have lost their greatest happiness, God himself, and they are subject to death. 7. God has rescued sinful humanity through his Son Jesus Christ who reveals the supernatural, positive laws that save. Such laws are found in Scripture along with much of the moral law since human reason has been corrupted by sin and cannot properly discern the moral law. 8. Not all laws needed for life in this world are found in Scripture, and therefore, other laws are required. This law is positive law, given by legitimate authorities, whether church authority or political authority. 9. For the church, Scripture is the final, sufficient authority, and under Scripture there is reason in which common sense guides a right understanding of Scripture aided by the Spirit. Reason also helps the church formulate laws that are needed in her common life but not directly found in Scripture. In this regard, tradition is most useful since tradition gives examples of good things long tested by time. Church law not directly found in Scripture needs to be imposed by legitimate church authorities. Our next step is to see how Hooker responds to some of the issues raised by the Puritans.

Hooker and the Puritans

The Puritans did not accept a number of the ideas in the Anglican Prayer Book, and as a result, would meet together apart from the authorized services to study their Bibles. The result was, as Hooker phrased the matter, as follows:

When they and their Bibles were alone together, what strange fantastical opinion soever at any time entered into their heads, their use was to think the Spirit taught it them (Preface.8.7).

From which they proceed to a higher point, which is the persuading of men credulous and over-capable of such pleasing errors, that it is the special illumination of the Holy Ghost, whereby they discern those things in the word, which others reading yet discern them not (Preface.3.10).

Hooker addressed this way of reading Scripture in these words:

“Dearly beloved,” saith St. John, “give not credit unto every spirit.” There are but two ways whereby the Spirit leadeth men into all truth; the one extraordinary, the other common; the one belonging but unto some few, the other extending itself unto all that are of God; the one, that which we call by a special divine excellency Revelation, the other Reason. If the Spirit by such revelation have discovered unto them the secrets of that discipline out of Scripture, they must profess themselves to be all (even men, women, and children) Prophets (Preface.3.10).

Here Hooker is saying that immediate revelation is given only to a few, men such as the prophets or the apostles whose writings are found in Scripture. For the rest of us, we are called to use our minds as we study Scripture and not to think that every idea that comes into our heads is a revelation of the Holy Spirit. We are not, in other words, prophets as we read the Bible. Furthermore, Hooker observes that these Puritan revelations from Scripture were “things in the word, [Scripture] which others reading yet discern them not.” In other words, the Puritan Bible readers reached conclusions never seen before.

In Hooker’s view, we are not only to use our minds as we study Scripture, but as members of the universal church, we are called to see how the great tradition, the teachings of the church fathers, and the councils of the church have understood various biblical passages. If we discover something in Scripture not congruent with the teaching of the church, it is to be regarded with the utmost reserve. Human beings have intellectual capacities and they are social, and God respects and inspires those qualities. That, for Hooker, is the way the Spirit works to interpret Scripture, by the use of our reason in the context of the wisdom of the church.

Throughout Christendom today there are many churches founded by men and women who believe they were immediately inspired by the Holy Spirit to receive new revelations from Scripture, revelations that others have never seen, or if seen, judged mistaken. It is not unusual for these Christians to lack the exegetical tools required for intensive Bible study, nor do they know the tradition of the church in interpreting various passages. From the perspective of Hooker, this will and has led to chaos in the churches. By contrast, Anglicans require an educated clergy.

In Book One Hooker presents the basics of his theological system. In Book Two he begins to address Puritan concerns, beginning with what he considers to be their fundamental error.

The rather, for that it hath grown from no other root, than only a desire to enlarge the necessary use of the Word of God; which desire hath begotten an error enlarging it further than (as we are persuaded) soundness of truth will bear. For whereas God hath left sundry kinds of laws unto men, and by all those laws the actions of men are in some sort directed; they hold that one only law, the Scripture, must be the rule to direct in all things, even so far as to the “ taking up of a rush or straw.”

The Puritans were saying they only did what the Scripture commanded. Hooker will say this is impossible. There are many things one must do in order to live, and not all of them are found in Scripture. To think that everything we do must be found in Scripture is to “enlarge the necessary use of the Word of God.” Scripture does not tell us every detail of life, such as the “taking up of a rush or straw.”

Since the Puritans only did what Scripture commanded, they rejected many Anglican practices since these were not found in Scripture. For example, nowhere does the New Testament say that a monarch can be the head of the church, that worship must be from prayer books, that rings can be used in weddings, that priests can be called “father,” and that bishops should rule the church.

Hooker responded to these accusations in various ways. Among other things, Hooker observed that Scripture gives many examples of persons who acted in ways not specifically given in detail by the commands of God. For example, according to Scripture, David and Solomon possessed wisdom, and this wisdom enabled them to know the right way in varying circumstances even though this way was not set forth in detail in the Law of Moses (2.1.4). Or Paul said that he sought to commend himself to all persons that they might accept his gospel (2.2.2). When Paul commended himself to others, he had to recognize what was helpful to them, and this is not always found in Scripture but depends upon customs and circumstances. Peter said something similar, that Christians were to conduct themselves well in relations with non-believers that God may be glorified (2.2.3).

Furthermore, it is not always possible to refer to a scriptural commandment of God each time we act. Sometimes we act simply out of natural desires, and these desires were created by God and good. “We move, we sleep, we take the cup at the hand of our friend, a number of things we oftentimes do, only to satisfy some natural desire, without present, express, and actual reference unto any commandment of God" (2.2.1) By this and many other examples Hooker shows that we do many things not found in Scripture. What matters is whether we act out of a general willingness to please God in all things (2.2.2).

As did the Puritans, Hooker believed in the supremacy of Scripture, and therefore, if Scripture commanded something to be done, it must be done, and if prohibited, it cannot be done (2.4.4) But this leaves many, many things we do in life that are what Hooker calls “things indifferent.” In this case, we are free to do as we wish, provided of course that our general aim be to please God and walk in this ways. This means, in actual practice, that it is best to choose the way that is most edifying, or helpful, and in accord with love. Here Hooker refers to I Corinthians 6:12 where Paul, in the case of eating meat sacrificed to idols, states that "All things are lawful for me, but not all things are helpful. All things are lawful for me, but I will not be enslaved by anything.”

Having established the principle that there are “things indifferent,” and that we must choose among many alternatives how to pursue these things, and that the choice must be determined with the goal of pleasing God and loving others, the question then arises as to what choices satisfy these criteria. To address this it would be good to consider some concrete examples. Among other things we will see that tradition enables us to know what pleases God and blesses others. In appealing to tradition, however, Hooker must show that the tradition only applies in areas where Scripture has not commanded or prohibited. Let us look at some concrete examples, beginning with one of the issues the Puritans pressed with the greatest intensity, the question of bishops.

The Puritans believed that the church should be governed by local body of elders and not bishops. Further, among these elders, all were to be equal, none were to have primary authority as do Anglican bishops. The Puritans reached these conclusions because they claimed that this was the order described in Scripture for the New Testament Church. Hooker’s response involved several components.

First, he noted that the institution of bishops was of great antiquity, the pattern of the universal church for centuries. Given the great antiquity of this tradition, deep and convincing reasons must be given for its abandonment. "Oh nation utterly without knowledge, without sense! We are not through error of mind deceived, but some wicked thing hath undoubtedly bewitched us, if we forsake that government, the use whereof universal experience hath for so many years approved, and betake ourselves unto a regiment neither appointed by God himself, as they who favor it pretend, nor till yesterday ever heard among men" (7.52). Here we have the following: It is foolish to abandon a form of church government long held by the church. The Puritans claim their form of government, elders with all being equal, is found in Scripture. Hooker, however, will show that it is not found in Scripture, in fact, the idea was never heard of in the church until “yesterday.”

Hooker then proceeds to investigate Scripture and the teaching of the universal church. In regard to Scripture, he does not think it conclusive, that is, he knows that elders were found in the New Testament churches, but also there were overseers, rendered in Greek by the name ?π?σκοπος which led to the word “episcopate” or bishop. The term “bishop” was not the original term, but the function of a bishop was there from the beginning. Hooker believes the office of overseer was established by the apostles since Paul appointed both Titus and Timothy, but even if the office of an overseer was not given apostolic warrant, it was clearly a decision of the church to establish among the elders one who was the chief pastor or overseer. In either case, whether of God or of the church, it is to be approved (7.11.18) and there are several reasons for this.

First, it must be recognized that everything in the church should be of God. The things of God fall into two categories -- those directly ordained by God and those ordained by human beings. Those ordained by human beings are approved of God if they are for the good and consistent with and not contrary to God’s will (7.11.10). Scripture describes only a portion of good things that come from God. Therefore, things can still be of God and declared as good even if they are not covered in Scripture. Bishops, if not directly ordained in Scripture, were one such good. Also, the Puritans were never able to show that the office of an overseer was forbidden in the early church, and without that evidence, the office of overseer or bishop is at minimum a thing indifferent. In that case the universal practice and teaching of the church must be consulted, and in that regard, the evidence is clear. Universally, and Hooker presents the evidence for this, virtually from the beginning, the church was governed by bishops (7.7.1). Further, it is a commonsense observation that human beings, governed by a group, select among their members one who is their chief leader, and this is even true of the councils of elders by which the Puritans govern themselves (7.8.5). In this we can see how Hooker brings together Scripture, reason or commonsense, and tradition to reach his conclusions.

Hooker’s arguments for bishops are grounded in his theological system. God acts by his reason. Human being are created in the image of God, and therefore they can observe, reason, and decide the good. Some goods are given supernaturally in Scripture. Other goods, if the matter is a “thing indifferent,” are best decided by tradition since tradition embodies the wisdom of the past, matters well tested by long use. Further, reason can see clearly that all groups need a leader, and among the clergy, that leader is the bishop.

Let us consider one other matter that defines Anglicans over against those churches of the Puritan approach. The Puritans objected to Anglican worship, specifically the worship found in the English Book of Common Prayer. Their fundamental argument was that the Church of God should only allow those ceremonies that were commanded by the Word of God, and further, all ceremonies not found there and used by the heretical Church of Rome should be abolished (4.3.1). Or, to state the matter in Hooker’s words, “Their [the Puritans’] axiom is, that the sound believing Church of Jesus Christ may not be like the heretical churches in any of those indifferent things, which men make choice of, and do not take by prescript appointment of the word of God. (4.10.3). This was the Puritan’s general principle, and from there, they objected to many specific aspects of Anglican worship. For example, among other things they believed set forms of prayer to be superstitious (5.26.1), they objected to the use of vestments (5.29.1), thought it unseemly to mix lessons from Scripture with prayers (5.34.2), objected to singing by responses in prayer (5.39.2), believed that the Magnificat, Benedictus, and Nunc Dimittis, though taken from Scripture, were not intended for public worship (5.40.3), and that the need for the Creed in worship has passed because the Arian heresy which gave rise to the Creed had been defeated (5.42.12). In fact, when all was said and done, the essence of Puritan worship was the sermon and prayers which, in many respects, were spontaneous or created to be unlike the traditions of the Roman Church. Hooker responded by addressing the general principle of the Puritan critique, followed by his defense of the specific elements of Anglican worship.

Hooker agreed that whatever was commanded by Scripture to be in worship must be included, and whatever was prohibited must be omitted. At the same time, and the Puritans could not deny this, the New Testament had very little to say about the particulars of Christian worship. It is true that vestments were not mentioned in Scripture, that the creed was not commanded, and it is never said that one should say the Nunc Dimittis. But it is also true that these things were never prohibited, and as such, they are “things indifferent.” Then, in regard to things indifferent, other criteria should be used, and it was obvious to Hooker that one such criteria should not be whether something was or was not practiced by the Roman Church. In fact, in spite of her heresies, there were many truthful or helpful things believed and practiced in the Roman Church, and not only that, the Puritans accepted some of those customs such as the popish customs of godparents at baptisms and serving wafers at communion (4.10.1). Be that as it may, simply disagreeing with Rome was a miserable way of framing worship. “Miserable were the state and condition of that church, the weighty affairs thereof should be ordered by those deliberations wherein such a humour as this is predominate” (4.9.2). By “humour,” Hooker meant the simple distaste for things Roman, as if that constituted an adequate criterion for the goods of worship.

Rather worship should be designed according to those who worship and according to its object which is God. God himself is glorious and sublime, and therefore, worship must conform to the beauty and goodness of God.

Again, forasmuch as religion worketh upon him who in majesty and power is infinite, as we ought we account not of it, unless we esteem it even according to that very height of excellency which our hearts conceive when divine sublimity itself is rightly considered. In the powers and faculties of our souls God requireth the uttermost which our unfeigned affection toward him is able to yield (5.6.1)

Or, we may remember a quotation given earlier in this lesson in which Hooker spoke of faith, hope, and charity in reference to the living God.

Concerning faith, the principle object whereof is that eternal Verity which hath discovered the hidden wisdom in Christ; concerning Hope, the highest object whereof is that everlasting Goodness which in Christ doth quicken the dead; concerning Charity, the final object whereof is that incomprehensible Beauty which shineth in the countenance of Christ the Son of the Living God, … (1.11.6).

Given that God is sublime, beautiful, merciful, forgiving, and just, worship must honor those qualities in God in terms of its rites and ceremonies. Further, in the case of things indifferent, the great traditions of the church must be considered as these by long usage and profound wisdom have been formed according to the beauty and justice of God (5.7.1). Therefore, the Anglican Church received into her worship aspects of the great tradition, but did not accept those Roman practices and beliefs that were contrary to Scripture and the tradition of the church. By contrast, the Puritans have rejected many ancient traditions because they were Roman, leaving their worship impoverished, scarcely appropriate to the glory and majesty of God. Let us now see how these criteria are applied to the specific instances mentioned above.

In regard to set prayers, Hooker notes that the hymn of Moses after the victory of the Red Sea became a part of the Jewish prayer book, that Jesus taught a set prayer to be used, the Lord’s prayer, that the hymns of David were used in Jewish worship, that the disciples sang a hymn after the Lord’s Supper, and that hymns and psalms are not formed spontaneously but are the fruit of meditation ((5.26.2-3). Hooker is willing to use examples from the Old Testament to inform Christian worship because he believes the Old Testament foreshadows the New. Vestments are entirely fitting for public worship because God is not common, he is sublime, and therefore, vestments reflect the reality that what occurs in worship is not common, but rather for the glory of God. “To solemn actions of royalty and justice their suitable ornaments are a beauty. Are they only in religion a stain?” (5.29.1). Hooker then quotes the church fathers, Jerome and Chrysostom, who advocated vestments (5.29.2-3). Prayer and Scripture readings belong together because they mutually support and inflame the soul to worship God. “For prayer kindleth our desire to behold God by speculation [Scripture reading]; and the mind delighted with that contemplative sight of God [given by Scripture reading], taketh every where new inflammations to pray, the riches of the mysteries of the heavenly wisdom [Scripture reading] continually stirring up in us correspondent desires toward them” (5.34.1). Note here the sublime sense of God conveyed in this passage, and how, for Hooker, it manifests itself in worship. Hooker believed that human beings were created social beings. Worship is corporate worship, the worship of the society of believers, and liturgies that strengthen the corporate nature of worship are to be affirmed. Sung or read responses between the pastor and congregation strengthen the fervor of pastor and congregation toward God and are thereby fitting for corporate worship, “… or when he [the pastor] joyfully beginneth, and they [the congregation] with like alacrity follow, dividing between them the sentences wherewith they strive which shall most shew his own and stir up others’ zeal, to the glory of that God whose name they magnify …” (5.39.1). According to 2 Chronicles 29, the Levites were ordered to uses the psalms of David and Asaph as the people of Israel worshipped God. In a similar way the Magnificat, the Benedictus, and the Nunc Dimittis are appropriate for worship since they extol the goodness of God for sending Christ into the world, and out of that fountain of thanksgiving, the blessings of God continue even today (5.40.2-3). Finally, Hooker recognized that at the time of Arius the Arian heresy had been defeated, but yet, in every generation the old heresies spring to life, ever requiring that they be battled by placing those ancient preservatives of Christian Truth, the creeds, within the corporate worship of the church (5.42.13).

Reconciliation between the Puritans and the Anglicans was never really achieved. The Puritans continued down the path they had chosen, many of them emigrating to American for the sake of their faith since Anglicanism became the law of England. In America Puritanism flourished, and from there and other routes, made its way throughout the world in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. One can especially find its descendents in Latin America and Africa. In its worst manifestations it reduces worship to long sermons or teaching sessions, with spontaneous prayers said by a charismatic leader and praise songs more entertainment than congregational singing. It has abandoned, in my view, the greatness and beauty of the ancient heritage, liturgical worship. Many of its adherents know little of the creeds and the theological tradition of the church, and since these do not appear in worship, many scarcely know they exist. The same heresies, as Hooker foresaw, are repeated, generation by generation, sometimes growing worse with the passage of years. The result is a terrible impoverishment among the churches. It would be good to study Hooker, because when all was said and done, he did not just love the Church of England, but he loved the Church of England because he had seen the glory of God in her common life.

After Hooker, Anglican theology continued to develop, facing new challenges released by the passage of years. At the same time, however, the classical form -- the form of the Articles, of Cranmer, of Jewel, and of Hooker -- was the foundation of Anglicanism. It was a faith between Rome and the Puritans because it obeyed Scripture as the norm of faith and practice, but preserved the best of the ancient heritage, the great tradition of the church.

Review Questions

1. What famous book did Richard Hooker write?

2. What are the two key words in Hooker’s definition of law?

3. For Hooker, what is primary in God, his will or his reason?

4. What is the practical relevance of reason being primary in God?

5. What is the goal of all things?

6. What triple perfection do humans have?

7. What is the goal of human life?

8. What two kinds of law are there and what is the difference?

9. What kind of law is universal and how is it known?

10. What supernatural law was given to Adam in the garden?

11. Briefly, how does Hooker understand the relationship between the two testaments?

12. Why was Christ given eternal life?

13. What does Hooker think of the Reformation doctrine of justification by faith?

14. Hooker believes that human beings are social. What two great societies does he recognize?

15. Does Hooker think one can be saved outside the church?

16. In the long quotation from (1.11.6), what is Charity?

17. What, in the end, was Hooker’s real aim?

18. What three exegetical traditions does Hooker bring to bear as he interprets Scripture?

19. For Hooker, where does the understanding of a passage of Scripture begin?

20. Does Hooker think Scripture includes laws for everything we need in life? If not, who can make these needed laws and what kinds of law are they?

21. Hooker has three norms for Christian Truth -- Scripture, reason, and tradition. In a few sentences state how they are related to each other.

22. What is the difference between Hooker and the Puritans in their understanding of the role of the Spirit in interpreting the Bible?

23. What does Hooker think is the fundamental error of the Puritans?

24. What three or four examples does Hooker present from Scripture to show that biblical persons did things not directly revealed to them by God?

25. We do many things that are not the immediate command of God. As we do these things, however, what should be our primary goal?

26. What are “things indifferent”?

27. What was the chief objection of the Puritans in regard to bishops?

28. Does Hooker see evidence in the New Testament for elders, for bishops, for both?

29. Could the Puritans show that the office of overseer was forbidden in the early church?

30. If the Scriptures on bishops are not absolutely clear, to what source must we appeal to know whether bishops are a good idea or not?

31. How old, in Hooker’s view, is the custom of bishops?

32. What was the Puritans chief objection to the Anglican Prayer Book, its rites and ceremonies?

33. Name four particular things, accepted by Anglicans, that the Puritans believed should not be included in worship.

34. Does the New Testament have much to say about the particulars of Christian worship?

35. What does Hooker think of the Puritan claim that one reason for not accepting a practice in worship was that the Church of Rome affirmed the practice?

36. If Scripture does not give the particulars for Christian worship, what is the next best source for forming Christian worship?

37. Hooker appeals to tradition in regard to aspects of worship not detailed in Scripture, but he also has another criterion by which he evaluates a worship practice. What is that criterion?

38. Why is it fitting that ministers wear vestments?

39. Why, briefly, does Hooker think prayers and Bible readings mutually reinforce each other, and how does this relate to God?

40. Why did Hooker affirm using the Magnificat, the Benedictus, and the Nunc Dimittis in worship?

41. Why does he affirm saying one of the creeds in worship?

42. What is the last line of Lesson Eight saying?

Discussions Questions

Gather some people together and tell them a little bit about Richard Hooker and explain to them why he adopted a position that differed from the Roman Church on one hand and the Puritan Church on the other. Specifically, tell them why Hooker was willing to accept tradition in areas of church life where the Bible was silent. Then ask them to discuss what they have experienced in the various churches and how these churches may be different from the Anglican Church. Do these other churches have things they do in worship that your groups think might be helpful in Anglican worship? Does your group see some positive things about Anglican worship that are not found in many other churches?

Endnote

1. Hooker’s Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity can be found here: http://anglicanhistory.org/hooker/

The Rev. Robert J. Sanders, Ph.D.
February, 2015